From Hive to Hazard: Antimicrobial Resistance and Handling-Linked Microbial Contamination in Market-Sold Honey from Enugu Urban, Nigeria

¹Anichukwu Nwankwo Onyinye, ¹Aniaku Vincent N., ²Okogu Sabinus Chukwuka and ¹Ogunbodede T. T.

¹Department of Applied Microbiology and Brewing, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Nigeria.

²Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Institute of Management and Technology, IMT, Enugu, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Background: Honey possesses well-documented intrinsic antimicrobial properties, yet retail handling in low-resource settings may compromise its safety independently of its chemical integrity. Whether market honey remains microbiologically safe once it leaves the hive, and whether any contamination acquired en route carries antimicrobial resistance, is rarely established within a single dataset. Objective: This study integrated physicochemical, phytochemical, mineral, and microbiological profiling, including molecular isolate identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, of honey sold in three markets in Enugu Urban, Nigeria, against an unadulterated control, and linked contamination patterns to documented handling practices. Methods: Eighteen honey samples were purchased from Ogbete, Abakpa and Mayor markets (six per market) and compared with certified unadulterated honey from Opi Nsukka. Physicochemical parameters were determined according to AOAC protocols; phytochemical constituents were screened qualitatively and profiled by high-performance liquid chromatography; trace and toxic metals were quantified by atomic absorption spectrophotometry; bacterial and fungal isolates were enumerated, phenotypically characterised, and confirmed by 16S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer sequencing; antibiotic and antifungal susceptibility was determined by disc diffusion; and a structured questionnaire (n = 30) captured harvesting, processing, and retail practices. Results: All samples satisfied Codex Alimentarius and European Union compositional limits for moisture, ash, and sugar content, and mineral concentrations remained within accepted safety ranges throughout. Phytochemical and mineral profiles of market honey were broadly comparable with the control. Market samples nonetheless carried significantly higher total viable bacterial and fungal counts than the control (p < 0.05), and molecular sequencing confirmed the presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Shigella sonnei, and Staphylococcus aureus, none of which were recovered from the control. Several isolates displayed multidrug resistance, with meropenem the only antibiotic retaining broad activity and erythromycin resistance exceeding 85% in Staphylococcus aureus. Questionnaire responses linked contamination to unsterilised containers, infrequent hand and tool washing, prolonged air exposure, and direct customer contact with the product. Conclusion: Honey sold in Enugu Urban retains its intrinsic chemical and phytochemical quality, but acquires clinically relevant, multidrug-resistant microbial contaminants during post-harvest handling and retail sale. Market-level hygiene, rather than honey chemistry, is the primary determinant of consumer safety risk and the more tractable point for intervention.

Keywords: honey quality; antimicrobial resistance; food safety; market contamination; phytochemical profiling; molecular identification; Nigeria

CITE AS: Anichukwu Nwankwo Onyinye, Aniaku Vincent N., Okogu Sabinus Chukwuka and Ogunbodede T. T. (2026). From Hive to Hazard: Antimicrobial Resistance and Handling-Linked Microbial Contamination in Market-Sold Honey from Enugu Urban, Nigeria. IDOSR JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ALLIED FIELDS 11(2):23-30.  https://doi.org/10.59298/IDOSR/JBBAF/2026/1122330